面临霸权国的战略镇压,兴起国总是需求在仇视和退让这两类应对战略中做出挑选。依据震慑和螺旋两种模型,这两类战略各有优势和衰老且互互相补,这形成了“仇视—退让”战略的取舍两难。本文在鉴别螺旋和震慑模型理论条件的基础上指出,兴起国和霸权国在权利搬运进程中的实践动机一般不契合螺旋模型的假定,这是导致现有许多实证研讨不支撑螺旋模型预期的潜在原因。以方位动机为首要驱动力的兴起国与霸权国的战略互动,愈加近似于“耗费战”博弈所描写的进程,在这一进程中,兴起国在“仇视—退让”战略光谱中的偏好由可分配物质实力比照、决计比照以及实力改动趋势三个要素一起描写。假如霸权国的遏止没有反转兴起国对自己未来物质实力展开远景的原有达观预期,则兴起国倾向于挑选退让和协作性方针;假如霸权国的遏止反转了上述预期,或许霸权国应战了兴起国保卫本身要害利益的决计,则兴起国倾向于挑选强硬和仇视性方针。
一、问题的提出
本文的研讨问题是:兴起国在面临来自霸权国的遏止和镇压时,什么条件下会倾向于挑选仇视性(鹰)战略,什么条件下倾向于挑选退让性(鸽)战略?
(一)理论层面的“仇视—退让”两难
国家怎么在仇视性战略和退让性战略之间做出挑选,涉及到世界联系理论中震慑(deterrence)和螺旋(spiral)两种模型的经典争辩。震慑模型以为,强硬态度和有力的要挟有助于展现保卫自己利益的决计,然后防止抵触的发生;退让和妥协性战略则会开释脆弱信号,引起对方更多的应战。螺旋模型则互不相让地以为,退让能开释好心然后防止或缓解安全窘境,强硬战略则会描写和强化对方对自己的仇视认知,然后引发抵触螺旋,导致抵触晋级。[1]仇视和退让战略的优缺点刚好互补,形成了这两类战略在实践中的取舍两难。
依据现有研讨,国家间互动是否契合震慑模型的预期取决于防御者宣告的要挟是否满意可信。[2]但怎么既能让要挟可信到假如对方进攻则必定会引起报复,一起又能让对方信赖己方必定不会首要进攻,这在理论和实践中都是难题。一起,学者们关于抵触螺旋发生的原因也缺少共同,一些学者以为抵触螺旋源于过错认知等心思原因,[3]另一些则以为源于特定的情境结构。[4]抵触螺旋发生的本源不清晰,进一步添加了决议方案者在仇视和退让两种战略中做出挑选的难度。这种“仇视—退让”的理论两难甚至成为微观理论争辩的中心议题。进攻性实际主义主张以权利最大化求安全,防御性实际主义着重权利扩张对安全的负效应,[5]这两种微观理论能够别离近似地看作震慑和螺旋这两种中观理论模型的广义化,它们之间经年累月的争辩反映出这个两难问题在世界政治中的普遍性以及处理这个问题的应战性。
在杂乱的大国政治中,坚持有用的震慑非常重要,为此需求让潜在对手信赖其损坏现状的行为必定会对其本身带来巨大丢失。[6]但一起,经过自我按捺、自动释善等方法增进互信、防止不必要的抵触和抵触晋级相同非常重要。[7]在霸权国的战略压力下,兴起国的战略挑选不只直接联系本身利益,并且会极大地影响两个大国的互动进程和系统安全状况,这意味着从“仇视—退让”视角研讨兴起国行为规矩具有重要的实际含义。
(二)方针层面的“仇视—退让”两难
暗斗完毕后我国长时刻坚持韬光养晦的交际战略,体现出显着的现状偏好。[8]可是,跟着美国战略压力的不断加大,我国战略界开端呈现对既有交际战略的反思。一些学者指出,过火低谐和释善,有或许束缚我国应有的国家利益拓宽空间,使我国在与美国的“讨价还价”进程中堕入被逼,诱发美国更斗胆的应战。[9]2018年美国发起对华交易战以来,我国仍然坚持了以奋斗求协作的全体方针,对美国提出的平衡交易逆差、加强知识产权维护等诉求全体持协作态度。这些方针在战略界也引起了必定程度的争辩。[10]在学者们谈论协作性方针是否对我国有利时,另一个不容逃避的问题也随之显现:假如我国的对美方针添加“强硬”和“仇视”的比重,是否会强化两国的仇视心情,导致抵触螺旋,甚至由此引发一场新暗斗?[11]现在的我国显着正处在一个战略取舍的十字路口,面临美国不断晋级的战略镇压,究竟是挑选强硬反击仍是平缓退让,正日益成为我国对美战略的焦点问题。
(三)研讨发现和结构组织
本文在鉴别螺旋和震慑模型理论条件的基础上指出,兴起国和霸权国在权利搬运进程中的实践动机一般不契合螺旋模型的假定,这是导致现有许多实证研讨不支撑螺旋模型预期的潜在原因。以方位动机为首要驱动力的兴起国与霸权国的战略互动,愈加近似于“耗费战”(war of attrition)博弈所描写的进程,在这一进程中,兴起国在“仇视—退让”战略光谱中的偏好由可分配物质实力比照、决计比照以及实力改动趋势三个要素一起描写。假如霸权国的遏止没有反转兴起国对自己未来物质实力展开远景的原有达观预期,则兴起国倾向于挑选退让和协作性方针;假如霸权国的遏止反转了上述预期,或许霸权国应战了兴起国保卫本身要害利益的决计,则兴起国倾向于挑选强硬和仇视性方针。
需求阐明的是,本文首要是着眼于实际层面的经验性研讨(empirical research),即研讨在特定条件下兴起国会怎么做以及它们为什么会这么做;而不是规范性研讨(normative research),不谈论兴起国应当怎么做,不点评兴起国所选战略的对错好坏。当然,从理性和演化的视角看,假使某种具有规矩性的行为方式与兴起国的战略利益存在底子或严峻抵触,那么这种行为方式本身也不或许实在存在。从这个含义上讲,本文对兴起国战略挑选规矩的谈论也具有必定的方针参阅含义。
本文以下分为四个部分。第二部分回忆学界在“仇视—退让”取舍问题上的现有争辩。第三部分提出兴起国鹰鸽战略的取舍逻辑。第四部分调查德国、苏联和北宋三个事例以查验第三部分提出的理论假定。终究是定论。
二、现有理论争辩
……
三、兴起国鹰鸽战略的取舍逻辑
(一)大国竞赛的动因问题
受以新实际主义为代表的干流世界联系理论和美国对外方针言语的影响,许多研讨都以为安满是大国对外行为的最首要动机,引发大国间抵触的最首要机制是安全窘境。[12]假如大国的方针函数真的只是保证本身安全,抵触真的只是源于无政府状况下的惊骇和过错感觉,那么螺旋模型的观念无疑是正确的:强硬反击和仇视会危害本身利益(安全),恰当的退让和安慰有助于平缓和躲避抵触。[13]
安全窘境包含了囚犯窘境和猎鹿博弈两种或许的支付结构。[14]假如是猎鹿博弈,即两边对互相都挑选协作的偏好大于对己方变节而对方协作的偏好,则这种情况下的“安全窘境”并不是实在含义上的“窘境”,只需求简略地树立决计办法即可完成协作。[15]相对而言,囚犯窘境完成协作的难度要大许多,它也是世界联系学者用以剖析大国抵触的一种常用模型。[16]但即便是在囚犯窘境状况下,因为互相协作是互相变节的帕累托改进,因而国家间仍然能够经过恰当的战略挑选和长时刻的互动构成互利式的协作联系。[17]这也是螺旋模型和防御性实际主义甚至准则主义中心方针主张的理论基础地点。
但问题是,安全窘境并不是导致国家间军事和战略竞赛的仅有机制,实在的利益抵触相同会引发相似的进程和成果。[18]在与霸权国的互动中,兴起国的战略挑选是否契合(遵从)螺旋模型的预期(主张),取决于两边的战略互动是否真的受安全窘境机制的驱动。依据现有理论,安全窘境的存在至少要具有以下两个条件中的一个:互动两边的动机(motive)都只是保证本身安全而不是寻求增量利益;[19]互动两边的目的(intention)都不包含危害或削减对方的利益。[20]惋惜的是,在兴起国和霸权国的战略互动中,这两个条件都很难满意。
首要,大国间战略竞赛的首要动机是荣誉和方位(以及与之密切相关的狭义含义上的权利)而不是安全。演化生物学、演化心思学的很多试验显现,对分配方位的巴望是动物的一种天然赋性。[21]近年来,世界联系学界逐步意识到将国家动机朴实简化为寻求安全的过错,[22]越来越深刻地认识到方位动机的普遍性和重要性,[23]指出以寻求方位为首要动机的方位竞赛(positional rivalries)是大国战略竞赛的首要类型。[24]在方位竞赛下,兴起国和霸权国的抵触源于实在的利益抵触而不是无政府状况下的惊骇。霸权国会忧虑兴起国的兴起导致自己方位的下降,由此发生的方位焦虑会促进霸权国阻遏兴起国方位的吹嘘,[25]甚至即便兴起国自动进行战略缩短也难以弱化霸权国的要挟认知。[26]
对兴起国来说,虽然因为其实力处于添加轨迹因而在大都时分只寻求改动实力散布而不寻求改动现有次序和规矩,但跟着实力比照的继续改动,霸权国所主导的世界次序与兴起国的利益诉求之间的敌对会逐步突显,[27]究竟兴起国在现有世界次序下只能缩小与霸权国的实力距离,而难以成为榜首领导国并树立新的世界次序。[28]面临霸权国的阻遏,寻求方位吹嘘的动机遇唆使兴起国采纳相应的战略,[29]甚至会采纳冒险和侵略性行为以反抗方位固化的阻力。[30]总归,受方位动机影响,兴起国和霸权国的抵触并不是什么“窘境”(dilemma)或“悖论”(paradox),而只是两边利益抵触的直接体现,并且这种利益抵触在很大程度上是零和的。正如一篇谈论所指出的,现在中美博弈“一方的获胜在很大程度上就意味着另一方的失利:要么我国臣服于美国主导的次序,要么美国撤出西太平洋”。[31]
其次,大国在战略竞赛中对互相的目的很难彻底坚持好心。兴起国与霸权国的竞赛一般由实力比照改动而引发,跟着实力搬运的进行,霸权国会越来越难以信赖兴起国的按捺许诺,日益显着的相对式微远景会逐步强化前者对后者发起预防性进攻的目的。[32]近期的研讨甚至显现,即便放松“国家知道并能预见权利搬运”这个假定,权利搬运布景下许诺问题仍然存在并且仍然或许引发战役。[33]而对兴起国而言,发起抵触和战役能够起到迫使其他国家供认其方位的作用,甚至无关其成果是胜是败。[34]
综上可见,大国战略互动一般都不构成安全窘境。正因如此,美苏暗斗从全体上看并不归于安全窘境,[35]而更适合被视为是一种大国间的持久性竞赛(enduring rivalry)。[36]一起这也能解释为什么文献回忆中提及的大都实证研讨都不支撑螺旋模型的假定:因为该模型的理论条件在实在世界中很难彻底满意。厘清大国竞赛的动因问题,为咱们精确提醒大国互动中兴起国一方“仇视—退让”战略的取舍逻辑扫清了妨碍。
(二)耗费战博弈下兴起国的决议方案逻辑
相比较于由安全动机驱动的安全窘境模型,有方位动机驱动的大国竞赛更适宜用“耗费战”博弈加以描写。在耗费战博弈下,博弈两边为抢夺某个利益而打开竞赛,当其间一方挑选退出时另一方赢得该利益;在两边都未挑选退出时,两边每坚持一轮都须支付相应的本钱。在这个限定下,对每个参与者来说,对方退出的时刻越早,己方收益越大;对方下一轮退出时己方的收益大于己方在这一轮退出时己方的收益。[37]当两个大国投入资源抢夺方位、荣誉和权利,且两边均难以在某单次战役中获得对对方的决议性成功时,两边的竞赛与耗费战博弈的上述两个特征相吻合:两边都期望对方先退出竞赛,并且为了迫使对方先退出,两边都乐意比对方坚持更长的时刻。现在的问题是,什么要素左右着这场“耗费战”的输赢,然后影响着博弈参与者的决议方案?
1. 物质资源(实力)比照
竞赛两边可分配物质资源的总量比照从底子上决议了耗费战博弈的终究结局:谁的资源总量更大,谁就能坚持更长的时刻。[38]这意味着,在彻底信息情况下,(物质资源总量较多的一方在榜首轮挑选抢夺,较少一方在榜首轮挑选退出)是该博弈的纯战略纳什均衡。[39]不过,大国物质资源的比照不是停止不变的,大国一方面会因竞赛而耗费资源,另一方面又会因经济出产而发明资源。假如经济展开发明资源的速度超过了本身因竞赛而耗费资源的速度,那么国家的可分配资源总量仍然会随时刻添加。显着,那些物质资源“净增速”(经济展开发明资源速度减资源耗费速度)较低的大国,将终究因相对物质资源较少而败下阵来。因而,处于权利搬运进程中的大国一方面会注重各自实力随时刻的相对改动趋势,[40]另一方面,相比较于军实际力,大国特别是守成大国会愈加注重经济展开潜力。[41]
兴起国的界说决议了其物质实力增速快于霸权国。这种相对有利的实力改动趋势决议了兴起国在“仇视(强硬)—退让(温文)”的方针光谱中存在偏好后者的固有倾向。这是因为,首要,时刻在兴起国一边,相比较于现在,兴起国在未来与霸权国交兵或商洽的境况将更为有利,[42]因而,兴起国有动机推延抵触。其次,防止抵触有助于坚持和促进兴起国的实力添加趋势,假如过早挑选强硬和仇视战略,则不只会丢失原有的堆集实力的机遇,并且会引起其他国家的制衡,然后额定耗费自己的展开潜力。[43]第三,依据远景理论,实力兴起的进程处于收益区间,在该区间下行为领会更倾向于躲避危险。[44]因而,相比较于方位下降所引发的方位焦虑(status anxiety),方位上升速度低于实力添加快度所引发的方位不共同(status inconsistency)导致国家采纳冒险行为的或许性更低。[45]
也正因如此,越来越多的批评者质疑经典权利搬运理论关于兴起国有修正主义倾向的理论预设,究竟兴起国冒险用一种未经查验的新次序替代一种正在促进其兴起的现有次序,还不吝为推翻现有次序、树立和坚持新次序支付巨大的本钱,这样的设定是令人费解的。[46]正如戴尔·科普兰(Dale C. Copeland)所说,“关于一个正在兴起的国家而言,简直没有理由去发起一场大战或许一轮显着会引起大战的危机”,“只需镇定坚持下去有利于本国的展开,就没有理由打破现有的格式”。[47]从这个含义上讲,兴起国的“修正主义”首要体现在改动现有物质实力比照而不是现有次序的规矩和准则上。[48]详细到我国这个兴起国,跟着实力的添加,我国在处理疆域争端时运用武力的志愿在下降而不是上升。[49]
总归,相对物质资源是耗费战博弈的底子束缚,兴起国的实力添加预期使其有志愿在较长时刻内挑选较为按捺的协作性方针。2018年美国为镇压我国经济和科技发起交易战,但我国政府以为“我国经济长时刻向好大势没有变”。[50]依据这一判别,我国在交易战中的应对全体坚持了按捺和协作的姿势。[51]20世纪30年代,面临德国的不断寻衅和扩张,英国政府以为经过大规模重整军备,自己与德国的实力均衡能够在30年代末得到康复,因而决议在此之前对德绥靖以争夺更多的展开时刻。[52]
反过来,假如霸权国的镇压和遏止方针使兴起国的实力添加预期反转,则兴起国出于夺回本身物质实力展开自动权的理性考虑以及身处丢失区间乐意承受危险的心思倾向,会转而挑选强硬和抗争性战略。一战后日本工业结构所需的原材料和石油简直彻底依靠进口,而美国和英国自1930年之后开端添加交易束缚,到1941年8月,美英等国切断了对日一切石油交易,对此日本决议方案者共同以为,除非康复石油进口,不然经济衰退将危及长时刻安全。为康复交易,日本天皇终究同意了全面战役方案。[53]
2. 决计比照
相对物质实力并不是决议耗费战博弈成果的仅有要素,因为实际世界中博弈两边的资源总量以及各自乐意投入的资源总量等信息往往是不对称的。在不彻底信息情况下,谁能让对方信赖自己有才能和志愿耗费比对方更多的资源(坚持更多的次序),亦即展现更大的决计(resolve),谁就能够迫使对方首要退出竞赛。这一点在核仇视中体现得最为显着,[54]而即便是惯例军事抵触中,决计与抵触成果也存在明显的正相关联系。[55]从博弈模型来看,不对称信息条件下耗费战中体现愈加强硬、更有决计的一方预期收益更高。[56]
耗费战博弈的这一特色决议了参与者有动机证明和保卫自己的决计。国家不只仅注重自己行为的短期成果,还关怀其长时刻影响。[57]其他国家会调查一国的行为并依据其既有行为所树立的名誉做出相应的决议方案。[58]在这种情况下,当一国决计遭到对手的质疑和应战时,前者必需要考虑假如自己在当下做出退让会对自己决计的名誉(reputation of resolve)形成何种影响,然后对自己在未来博弈中的境况发生何种影响。实证研讨显现,宣告要挟的一方假如在曩昔的强制性交际中做出过退让,则当时其要挟的方针方做出退让的或许性更低;[59]曩昔畏缩过的国家更有或许在未来遭到应战。[60]
因为一国过往行为所树立起的决计的名誉能够添加自己在未来博弈中讨价还价的筹码,[61]名誉越高越有或许迫使对手在未来次序首要退出博弈,[62]因而保卫决计的名誉必定成为大国竞赛中影响大国决议方案的另一个重要要素。在信息不对称情况下,个别预期未来博弈的次序越多,名誉对个别的重要性越大。[63]对本身决计的名誉的关心会直接影响大国在“仇视(强硬)—退让(温文)”方针光谱中的挑选。实证研讨显现,决议方案者越注重他国对本国决计的观点,就越乐意将争端晋级而不是退让。[64]向对手证明自己的决计,是国家发起军事抵触的重要动机。[65]
1995年5月美国宣告答应我国台湾区域领导人李登辉访美。我国决议方案层对美国此举目的的判别是“测验一下中方在台湾问题上的底线”,看我国是否会“吞下李登辉访美苦果”。为消除美方梦想、展现保卫本国主权的决计,长时刻坚持韬光养晦战略的我国政府敏捷做出决议,采纳了包含展开接连9个月大规模台海军事演习、召回驻美大使、暂停两国副部长级以上高层拜访在内的一系列强硬反击办法。[66]依据最近的一项研讨,树立和保卫自己决计的名誉相同是影响近期我国在南海区域采纳强制方针的重要考量。[67]
3. 理论假定
依据以上剖析,咱们能够将兴起国应对霸权国应战时的决议方案逻辑总结为如下三个假定:
假定1:假如霸权国应战的首要方针是按捺兴起国物质实力(首要是经济实力)的展开潜力,但这种应战和遏止并未从方向上反转兴起国对自己未来实力展开远景的原有预期,则兴起国的方针偏好是躲避危险,倾向于挑选退让和协作性方针。
假定2:假如霸权国按捺兴起国物质实力添加的行为反转了兴起国对本身展开远景的预期,由预期收益转变为预期丢失,则兴起国的偏好是承受危险,倾向于采纳强硬和仇视性方针。
假定3:假如霸权国企图打听和应战兴起国保卫本身利益的决计,使兴起国感到假如在当时做出退让,则不只当时自己须支付严峻价值,并且未来对方很或许会提出更过火的要求,那么兴起国会倾向于承受危险,挑选强硬和仇视性方针。
四、事例研讨
……
五、定论
处理“仇视—退让”两难问题的要害是清晰互动两边的动机和首要方针。假如两边动机均为保证本身安全,首要方针都是防止抵触和坚持协作本身,那么退让(协作)性战略显着更有助于完成这类方针,也更易被国家所选用。但在兴起国和霸权国的战略互动中,两个大国都绝难将自己的方针只是限定在坚持本国(生计)安全上,而往往均将相对方位和影响力作为自己的首要战略方针。在这一方针函数下,面临霸权国的镇压和遏止,兴起国在“仇视—退让”战略光谱中的偏好将遭到可分配物质实力比照、决计比照以及实力改动趋势三个要素的影响。
自2018年开端的中美交易战没有改动我国政府关于“我国经济长时刻向好大势没有变”的判别,因而到现在我国对美交际全体仍坚持按捺和协作。依据本文理论,假如未来美国联合其他国家加快与我国经济脱钩,强化对我国科技封闭,并由此影响到我国在本世纪中叶完成民族复兴的自我预期,或许美国在台湾、南海等事关我国中心利益的问题上严峻应战我国的决计,我国交际的战略取向将被逼向仇视(强硬)端歪斜,如此则中美两国在短期内的仇视甚至仇视局势将很难防止,世界被从头分裂为两大仇视阵营的暗斗危险亦将明显上升。在当时对华强硬已成美国两党最大共同的情况下,上述昏暗远景呈现的或许性正在敏捷上升。我国在挑选仇视性战略之后怎么尽或许削减仇视对本身国力添加的负面影响,将是我国能否赢得这场“耗费战”的下一个要害性课题。
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[10] 相关争辩和谈论拜见Li Wei, “Towards Economic Decoupling? Mapping Chinese Discourse on the China–US Trade War,” The Chinese Journal of International Politics, Vol. 12, No. 4, 2019, pp. 519–556; Alexander Lukin, “The US–China Trade War and China’s Strategic Future,” Survival, Vol. 61, No. 1, 2019, pp. 23-50.
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[13] Andrew Kydd, Trust and Mistrust in International Relations (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 2005); Charles L. Glaser, Rational Theory of International Politics, chapter 3; Shiping Tang, A Theory of Security Strategy for Our Time: Defensive Realism, chapter 5.
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[15] Jennifer Mitzen and Randall L. Schweller, “Knowing the Unknown Unknowns: Misplaced Certainty and the Onset of War,” p. 16.
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[35] Robert Jervis, “Was the Cold War a Security Dilemma?” pp. 36-60; Shiping Tang, A Theory of Security Strategy for Our Time: Defensive Realism, pp. 185-187.
[36] Deborah Welch Larson, “The U.S.-Soviet Rivalry,” in William R. Thompson ed., Great Power Rivalries (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1999), pp. 371-390.
[37] J. Maynard Smith, “The Theory of Games and the Evolution of Animal Conflicts,” Journal of Theoretical Biology, Vol. 47, No. 1, 1974, pp. 209-221. 朱·弗登博格、让·梯若尔:《博弈论》(黄涛等译),北京,我国人民大学出版社2010年版,第101—102页。
[38] 周方银:《耗费战博弈与媾接机遇的挑选》,《世界政治科学》2007年第3期,第61—63页;Catherine C. Langlois and Jean-Pierre Langlois, “Should Rational States Really Bargain While They Fight?” Unpublished manuscript, Georgetown University, Georgetown, Washington, DC/San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA., 2012. 另拜见毛泽东:《论持久战》,载《毛泽东选集》第二卷,北京,人民出版社1991年版,第447—450页。
[39] Prajit K. Dutta, Strategies and Games: Theory and Practice (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999), pp. 125-126.
[40] 戴尔·科普兰:《大战的来源》(黄福武译),北京大学出版社2008年版。
[41] 肖河、蒙克:《“修昔底德圈套”中的不对称竞赛战略》,《世界政治科学》2019年第1期,第19—52页。
[42] Robert Powell, In the Shadow of Power: States and Strategies in International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), p. 34.
[43] David M. Edelstein, Over the Horizon: Time, Uncertainty, and the Rise of Great Powers, p. 23.
[44] Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, “Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk,” Econometrica, Vol. 47, No. 2, 1979, pp. 263-292; Jack S. Levy, “Prospect Theory, Rational Choice, and International Relations,” International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 1, 1997, pp. 87-112.
[45] Tudor Onea, “Between Dominance and Decline: Status Anxiety and Great Power Rivalry,” pp. 125–152.
[46] Jonathan M. DiCicco and Jack S. Levy, “Power Shifts and Problem Shifts: The Evolution of the Power Transition Research Program,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 43, No. 6, 1999, pp. 694-699; Randall Schweller, “Managing the Rise of Great Powers: History and Theory,” in Alastair Iain Johnston and Robert S. Ross eds., Engaging China: The Management of an Emerging Power (New York: Routledge, 1999), pp. 2-7; Zhou Jianren, “Power Transition and Paradigm Shift in Diplomacy: Why China and the US March towards Strategic Competition?” Chinese Journal of International Politics, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2019, p. 10.
[47] 戴尔·科普兰:《大战的来源》,第50、70页。
[48] 亚历山大·库利等将修正主义划分为改动现有次序和现有实力散布两个维度,只改动实力散布不改动现有次序的国家称为方位主义国家(positionalist state)。Alexander Cooley, Daniel Nexon and Steven Ward, “Revising Order or Challenging the Balance of Military Power? An Alternative Typology of Revisionist and Status-quo States,” Review of International Studies, Vol. 45, No. 4, 2019, pp. 698-699.
[49] M. Taylor Fravel, “Power Shifts and Escalation: Explaining China’s Use of Force in Territorial Disputes,” International Security, Vol. 32, No. 3, 2007/2008, p. 47.
[50] 韩洁等:《展望我国经济长时刻向好大势》,新华网,2019年8月15日,http://www.xinhuanet.com/fortune/2019-08/15/c_1124879273.htm。
[51] 相关方针争辩和整理拜见Li Wei, “Towards Economic Decoupling? Mapping Chinese Discourse on the China–US Trade War,” pp. 537-540.
[52] Norrin M. Ripsman and Jack S. Levy, “Wishful Thinking or Buying Time? The Logic of British Appeasement in the 1930s,” pp. 148–181. 从物质实力看,20世纪30年代中期德国已是欧洲无可争议的霸权国,相关数据拜见Randall L. Schweller, Deadly Imbalances: Tripolarity and Hitler’s Strategy of World Conquest (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), pp. 26-31.
[53] Dale Copeland, “Modeling Economic Interdependence and War: A Theory of Trade Expectations,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, September 1995, quoted from Dale C. Copeland, “Economic Interdependence and War: A Theory of Trade Expectations,” International Security, Vol. 20, No. 4, 1996, p. 26.
[54] Thomas C. Schelling, Arms and Influence (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966), pp. 92-125; Robert Jervis, “Why Nuclear Superiority Doesn’t Matter,” Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 94, No. 4, 1979/1980, p. 631; Robert Powell, “The Theoretical Foundations of Strategic Nuclear Deterrence,” Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 100, No. 1, 1985, p. 78; Robert Jervis, The Meaning of the Nuclear Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 38-41, 105; Robert Powell, Nuclear Deterrence Theory: The Search for Credibility (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 33-45. 核仇视是典型的胆小鬼博弈,而胆小鬼博弈是耗费战的静态方式,拜见Prajit K. Dutta, Strategies and Games: Theory and Practice, pp. 125-126.
[55] Zeev Maoz, “Resolve, Capabilities, and the Outcomes of Interstate Disputes, 1816-1976,” The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 27, No. 2, 1983, pp. 195-229.
[56] Clara Ponsati and József Sákovics, “The War of Attrition with Incomplete Information,” Mathematical Social Sciences, Vol. 29, No. 3, 1995, p. 240.
[57] John J. Mearsheimer, “Reckless States and Realism,” International Relations, Vol. 23, No. 2, 2009, p. 244.
[58] Mark J. C. Crescenzi, “Reputation and Interstate Conflict,” American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 51, No. 2, 2007, pp. 382-396; Joe Clare and Vesna Danilovic, “Reputation for Resolve, Interests, and Conflict,” Conflict Management and Peace Science, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2012, pp. 3-27.
[59] Timothy M. Peterson, “Sending a Message: The Reputation Effect of US Sanction Threat Behavior,” International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 57, No. 4, 2013, pp. 672–682.
[60] Dustin H. Tingley and Barbara F. Walter, “The Effect of Repeated Play on Reputation Building: An Experimental Approach,” pp. 343-365; Alex Weisiger and Keren Yarhi-Milo, “Revisiting Reputation: How Past Actions Matter in International Politics,” pp. 473–495; Chong Chen, “Territorial Dispute Initiation by Weaker States,” The Chinese Journal of International Politics, Vol. 11, No. 3, 2018, pp. 339–372.
[61] Thomas C. Schelling, Arms and Influence, p. 124; Barry O’Neill, Honor, Symbols and War (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Keren Yarhi-Milo, Who Fights for Reputation in International Politics? Leaders, Resolve, and the Use of Force (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018).
[62] zyurt Seluk, “Building Reputation in a War of Attrition Game: Hawkish or Dovish Stance?” The B.E. Journal of Theoretical Economics, Vol. 16, No. 2, 2016, pp. 797-816.
[63] Dustin H. Tingley and Barbara F. Walter, “The Effect of Repeated Play on Reputation Building: An Experimental Approach,” p. 344.
[64] Allan Dafoe and Devin Caughey, “Honor and War: Southern US Presidents and the Effects of Concern for Reputation,” World Politics, Vol. 68, No. 2, 2016, pp. 341-381.
[65] Joe Clare and Vesna Danilovic, “Multiple Audiences and Reputation Building in International Conflicts,” The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 54, No. 6, 2010, pp. 860-882; Krista E Wiegand, “Militarized Territorial Disputes: States’ Attempts to Transfer Reputation for Resolve,” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 48, No. 1, 2011, pp. 101–113.
[66] 钱其琛:《交际十记》,北京,世界知识出版社2003年版,第307—308页;牛军:《三次台湾海峡军事奋斗决议方案研讨》,载张沱生、史文主编:《仇视·博弈·协作——中美安全危机办理事例剖析》,北京,世界知识出版社2007年版,第198—199页。
[67] Ketian Zhang, “Cautious Bully: Reputation, Resolve, and Beijing’s Use of Coercion in the South China Sea,” International Security, Vol. 44, No. 1, 2019, pp. 117–159.
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